[Mind-Culture Coevolution Home] [Tech Evol Contents] BIBLIOGRAPHY :WAGEBIBL Wages Phelps Brown, E. H. & Hopkins, Sheila V. 1955 SEVEN CENTURIES OF BUILDING WAGES. _Economica_ 22:87. Southern England, 1264-1954. 1956 SEVEN CENTURIES OF THE PRICES OF CONSUMABLES, COMPARED WITH BUILDERS' WAGE-RATES. _Economica_ 296-314. Samuelson uses data "updated by author." Samuelson, Paul A., with the assistance of William Samuelson 1979 _ECONOMICS_. 11th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Compa- ny. :METAPHOR Metaphor Benzon, William L. & Hays, David G. 1987 METAPHOR, RECOGNITION, AND NEURAL PROCESS. _American Journal of Semiotics_ 5:59-79. van Noppen, Jean-Pierre et al., comps. 198? _METAPHOR: A Bibliography of Post-1970 Publications_. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. :LINGBIBL Linguistics Berlin, Brent & Kay, Paul 1969 _BASIC COLOR TERMS: Their Universality and Evolution_. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bernstein, Basil / University of London / Institute of Education 1961 SOCIAL CLASS AND LINGUISTIC DEVELOPMENT: A Theory of Social Learning, In EESo. 1962 LINGUISTIC CODES, HESITATION PHENOMENA AND INTELLIGENCE. _Language and Speech_ 5:31-46. 1964 ELABORATED AND RESTRICTED CODES: Their Social Origins and some Consequences. _Amer. Anthrop._ 66(2 pt 2):55-69. 1971 _CLASS, CODES AND CONTROL_: Vol 1, _Theoretical Studies towards a Sociology of Language_. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Chomsky, Noam 1957 _SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES_. The Hague: Mouton. Hall, Edward Twitchell [1914- ] 1959 _THE SILENT LANGUAGE_. New York: Doubleday. Hawkins, John A. & Gell-Mann, Murray, eds. 1992 _THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN LANGUAGES_. (Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity 11) Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Hays, David G. 1964 DEPENDENCY THEORY: A FORMALISM AND SOME OBSERVATIONS. _Language_ 40(4):511-525. Hays, David G.; Margolis, Enid; Naroll, Raoul & Perkins, Revere Dale 1972 COLOR TERM SALIENCE. _American Anthropologist_ 74:1107- 1121. Keenan, Edward L. & Comrie, Bernard 1977 NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY AND UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. _Lin- guistic Inquiry_ 8:63-99. Accessibility Hierarchy (AH) SU > DO > IO > OBL > GEN > OCOMP 66 The Hierarchy Constraints (HCs) 1. A language must be able to relativize subjects. 2. Any RC-forming strategy must apply to a continuous segment of the AH. 3. Strategies that apply at one point of the AH may in principle cease to apply at any lower point. 67 Table 1. Languages: Relativizable positions for RC strat- egies. 76-79. Going down AH, languages retain pronouns more often. Table 2. 93 Marshall, Nancy & Glock, Marvin D. 1978 COMPREHENSION OF CONNECTED DISCOURSE: A Study into the Relationships between the Structure of Text and Informa- tion Recalled. _Reading Research Quarterly_ 14:10-56. If-then relations explicit or implied; adjectives in superlative, comparative, or simple form; main idea at beginning or end of text; designated clause at beginning or end of designated sentence. Manipulations affect recall of community college Ss but not Ivy League college Ss. Results define 2 different populations of readers. Perkins, Revere Dale 1980 THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE AND GRAMMAR. PhD thesis, State University of New York. 1988 THE COVARIATION OF CULTURE AND GRAMMAR. In _Studies in Syntactic Typology_ (Typological Studies in Language 17). Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Hammond, Michael, Edith Moravcsik, and Jessica Wirth, University of Wisconsin--Milwaukee, eds., pages 359-378. Sapir, Edward [1884-1939] 1921 _LANGUAGE: An Introduction to the Study of Speech_. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. Definitively anti-evolutionary. Swadesh, Morris [1909-1967] 1971 _THE ORIGIN AND DIVERSIFICATION OF LANGUAGE_. Sherzer, Joel, ed. & Hymes, Dell, intro. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton Inc. Language began at most 50 kya. 1972 London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. :HmRvBIBL The Rankshift to Sapience Bar-Yosef, Ofer & Vandermeersch, Bernard 1993 MODERN HUMANS IN THE LEVANT. _Scientific American_ 268- (4):94-100. Donald, Merlin / Queens University, Kingston, Ontario 1991 _ORIGINS OF THE MODERN MIND: Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition_. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univer- sity Press. Fagan, Brian M. 1990 _THE JOURNEY FROM EDEN: The Peopling of our World_. London & New York: Thames and Hudson. Hockett, Charles Francis / Cornell University 1978 IN SEARCH OF JOVE'S BROW. _American Speech_ 53:243-313. Hockett, Charles Francis & Ascher, Robert 1964 THE HUMAN REVOLUTION. _Current Anthropology_ 5:135-168. 1968 Rpt in M. Fried, 323-346. 1974 Rpt. in Cohen. Thorne, Alan G. & Wolpoff, Milford H. 1992 THE MULTIREGIONAL EVOLUTION OF HUMANS. _Scientific Ameri- can_ 266(4). Wilson, Allan C. & Cann, Rebecca L. 1992 THE RECENT AFRICAN GENESIS OF HUMANS. _Scientific Ameri- can 266(4). :COGNBIBL Cognition Barbu, Zevedei 1960 _PROBLEMS OF HISTORICAL PSYCHOLOGY_. New York: Grove Press, Inc. Benzon, William L., & Hays, David G. 1988 PRINCIPLES AND DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL INTELLIGENCE. _Journal of Social and Biological Structures_ 11:293-322. To account for the relation of mind and brain, we propose principles of modal switching, diagonalization across channels of perception, decision by the integration of positive and negative feedback systems, figural composi- tion of digital and image processes, and indexing from one subsystem into another. The phylogeny and ontogeny of these principles are discussed. Benzon, William L., & Hays, David G. 1990 COGNITIVE EVOLUTION. _Journal of Social and Biological Structures_, 13(4):297-320. With cultural evolution new processes of thought appear. Abstraction is universal, but rationalization first ap- peared in ancient Greece, theorization in Renaissance Italy, and model building in twentieth-century Europe. These processes support the methods of metaphor, meta- lingual definition, algorithm, and control, respectively. The intellectual and practical achievements of populations guided by the several processes and exploiting the differ- ent mechanisms differ so greatly as to warrant separation into cultural ranks. The fourth rank is not completely formed, while regions of the world and parts of every population continue to operate by the processes of earlier ranks. Frankfort, Henri; H.A. Frankfort, John A Wilson, Thorkild Jacobsen, & William A Irwin 1946 _THE INTELLECTUAL ADVENTURES OF ANCIENT MAN_. University of Chicago Press. Jaynes, Julian 1976 _THE ORIGIN OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE BREAKDOWN OF THE BICAMERAL MIND_. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Lassen, Niels A., Ingvar, David H. & Skinhoj, Erik 1978 BRAIN FUNCTION AND BLOOD FLOW. _Scientific American_ 239(4):62-71. Changes in the amount of blood flowing in areas of the human cerebral cortex, reflecting changes in the activity of those areas, are graphically revealed with the aid of a radioactive isotope. Le Pan. Don 1989 _THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION IN WESTERN CULTURE_: Vol 1: _The Birth of Expectation_. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: The Macmillan Press Ltd. Powers William T. 1973 _BEHAVIOR: THE CONTROL OF PERCEPTION_. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company. Van den Berg, J. H. 1961 _THE CHANGING NATURE OF MAN: Introduction to a Historical Psychology_. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc. :AGSPREAD The Spread of Agricultue Ammerman, Albert J. [1942- ], & Cavalli-Sforza, L[uigi] L[uca] [1922- ] 1971 MEASURING THE RATE OF SPREAD OF EARLY FARMING IN EUROPE. _Man_ 6:674-688. For a collection of sites, distance from Jericho is corre- lated with radiocarbon date of farming at the site. 1973 A POPULATION MODEL FOR THE DIFFUSION OF EARLY FARMING IN EUROPE. In Renfrew, 343-358. 1979 THE WAVE OF ADVANCE MODEL FOR THE SPREAD OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE [EARLY FARMING]. In Renfrew & Cooke, 275-294. 1984 _THE NEOLITHIC TRANSITION AND THE GENETICS OF POPULATIONS IN EUROPE_. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Rev AA 87:974-975 / Meiklejohn, Christopher Rev Man 21:543-544 / Roberts, D. F. Sokal, Robert R., Oden, Neal L. & Wilson, Chester / SUNY @ Stony Brook 1991 GENETIC EVIDENCE FOR THE SPREAD OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE BY DEMIC DIFFUSION. _Nature_ 351(0509):143-145. Partial correlations of genetic distances are significant against a distance matrix for agriculture. Support Ammer- man and Cavalli-Sforza. Sokal, Robert R. et al. 1992 Genetic patterns of many different European populations; family tree. Correlates 0.14 with Ruhlen's linguistic taxonomy. Controlling for geographic distance leaves 0.06. Neither Gimbutas's or Renfrew's model reduces that, so neither is supported. (Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, reported in _Scientific American_ 267(5):28) :CALCBIBL Calculation Apian, Peter 1527 _EYN NEWE UNND WOLGEGRUENDEDTE UNDERWEYSUNG ALLER KAUFF- MANSS RECHNUNG_. Cited in _Scientific American_ 267(5): 100. Fibonacci [Leonardo da Pisa] 1202 _LIBER ABBACI_. Also cited as ALGEBRA ET ALMUCHABALA. Algorithms of arithmetic received an effective European exposition. (Ball 1908) Khowarizm, Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa al- 825 KITAB AL JABR W'AL-MUQABALA. (Penrose 1989) The algorithms of arithmetic were collected. Newman, James R. 1956 _THE WORLD OF MATHEMATICS: A small library of the litera- ture of mathematics from A'h-mose the Scribe to Albert Einstein, presented with commentaries and notes by James R. Newman. 4 vols. New York: Simon and Schuster. van der Waerden, Bartel Leenert / Mathematisches Institut der Universitat Zurich 1985 _HISTORY OF ALGEBRA_. Berlin & New York: Springer-Verlag. Citing a lecture by Warren Van Egmond, Waerden says that the Italian word 'abbaco' means 'practical arithmetic. It does NOT mean 'abacus'. So Fibonacci's _Liber abbaci_ was not a book about the abacus, but a book about practical arithmetic. Leonardo was the son of a merchant who, expecting his son to be a merchant also, sent him to Algeria to learn arithmetic. The son wrote books about what he had learned from the Muslims, and _Liber Abbaci_ was the first. :COMPBIBL Computation The encyclopedias give credit for the first computer to Eckert and Mauchly, the inventors of ENIAC (in fact, they had collaborators). I consider that the crucial step across the threshold into a new era was taken by John von Neumann, who is recognized as the sole inventor of the stored program computer and the program language; his ideas were implement- ed in EDVAC, which followed ENIAC. These two steps were taken at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania (von Neumann was a consultant). Arthur Burks was a member of the EDVAC team. He and his wife have written this tendentious and tedious book to argue that Atanasoff, at Iowa State College, Ames, invented the first electronic automatic computer. An American court has said that he did, but no one pays attention. Which is the invention of the computer: Atanasoff's vacuum-- tube adder with storage of numbers and a relay control unit that is the one permanent "program"? Eckert and Mauchly's vacuum-tube arithmetic and (small) storage, with program in (slowly) modifiable plugboards? Or von Neumann's stored- program machine in which the program can modify itself and programs can be written as texts in programming languages? Everything you call a computer is built to von Neumann's design, but most of the parts were there for him to use. Or was the real inventor Alan Turing? Bernstein, Jeremy 1964 _THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE: Computers, Past, Present, and Future._ New York: Random House. Burks Alice R. [1920- ] and Arthur Walter Burks [1915- ] 1988 THE FIRST ELECTRONIC COMPUTER: The Atanasoff Story. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Rev BYTE 1988 September / Vose, G. Michael & 1989 July / Mauchly, John William, Jr. Burks, A. W., H. H. Goldstine, and J. von Neumann 1946 PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION OF THE LOGICAL DESIGN OF AN ELEC- TRONIC COMPUTING INSTRUMENT. Institute for Advanced Study. Carpenter, B. E., and R. W. Doran, eds. 1977 THE OTHER TURING MACHINE. _Comp. Journal_ 20:269-279. 1986 A. M. TURING'S ACE REPORT OF 1946 AND OTHER PAPERS_. Cambridge: MIT Press and Los Angeles: Tomash Publishers. Ceruzzi, Paul E. 1983 _RECKONERS: The Prehistory of the Digital Computer from Relays to the Stored Program Concept, 1933-1945_. West- port, CT: Greenwood Press. 1989 ELECTRONICS TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTER SCIENCE, 1940-1975: A Coevolution. _Annals of the History of Computing_ 10:257- 275. Davis, Martin 1988 MATHEMATICAL LOGIC AND THE ORIGIN OF MODERN COMPUTERS. In _The Universal Turing Machine: A Half-century Survey_, edited by Rolf Herken. Hamburg: Kammerer & Unverzagt & Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pages 149-174. 1988 INFLUENCES OF MATHEMATICAL LOGIC ON COMPUTER SCIENCE. In Herken, pages 315-326. Hodges, A. 1983 _ALAN TURING: The Enigma_. London: Burnett & New York: Simon and Schuster. Macrae, Norman 1992 _JOHN VON NEUMANN: The Scientific Genius who Pioneered the Modern Computer, Game Theory, and Nuclear Deterrence_. New York: Pantheon Books [Random House]. Turing, Alan M. 1936 ON COMPUTABLE NUMBERS with an application to the Ent- scheidungsproblem. Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society (2) 42:230-267, 1936-7. 1945 PROPOSALS FOR DEVELOPMENT in the Mathematics Division of an Automatic Computing Engine (ACE). National Physical Laboratory of Great Britain. von Neumann, John 1945 FIRST DRAFT OF A REPORT ON THE EDVAC. Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania. :SCIBIBL Science Burckhardt, Jacob Christoph [1818-1897] 1945 _THE CIVILIZATION OF THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY_. Butterfield, Herbert 1950 _ORIGINS OF MODERN SCIENCE 1300-1800_. London: Bill. 1957 New York: The Free Press. Cohen, I. Bernard / Harvard University 1985 _REVOLUTION IN SCIENCE_. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Conant, James B. / Harvard University 1947 _ON UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE: An Historical Approach_. Yale University Press. 1953 Paper. New York: New American Library. Conant was installing General Education at Harvard when he wrote this book. On the cover of my Mentor paperback: "A Famous Scientist Explains Science and its Role Today". Gingerich, Owen / Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics 1992 ASTRONOMY IN THE AGE OF COLUMBUS. SA 267(5):100-105. Hellmans, A. & B. Bunch 1988 _THE TIMETABLES OF SCIENCE_. New York: Simon and Schus- ter. Popper, Karl Raimund, Sir [1902- ] 1935 _LOGIK DER FORSCHUNG_. Vienna. 1959 _The Logic of Scientific Discovery_. New York: Basic Books. London: Hutchinson & Co., Ltd. 1984 Critical Remarks on the Knowledge of Lower and Higher Organisms, the So-called Sensory Motor Systems. In Creutz- feld et al., 19-31. 28: "I have developed a view of the growth of knowledge-- of human knowledge more specifically, but also of animal knowledge--which differs greatly from nearly everbody else's. According to this view, our knowledge is not in the main derived from experience, not even from experience as I see it: the elimination of bad guesses. Most of our knowledge, and animal knowledge, and even vegetable knowl- edge, is rather the result of sheer invention. ... All organisms are professional problem solvers: before life, problems did not exist. Problems and life entered the world together, and with them problem solving." CWHC 203 :POLINFO Information in Political Structure Johnson, Gregory A. 1978 INFORMATION SOURCES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF DECISION-MAKING ORGANIZATIONS. In Renfrew, _Social Archeology_, 87. With 6 or so sources, a society needs specialists in planning and control. (Pfeiffer 1982:206) 1983 DECISION-MAKING ORGANIZATION and Pastoral Nomad Camp Size. _Human Ecology_ 11:175-199. Typical size and maximum potential range are constrained by limits on the ability of individuals and small groups to monitor and process information for decisions. Thompson, F. B. 1964 DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS. In Bennett et al., 46-87. Thompson made numerical estimates of "The extent of the informational processes of the Department of Defense," claiming only that the "logarithms are of the right order of magnitude": 100 billion billion "Considerations within area of responsibility" for DoD, with "Average time be- tween significant contextual changes" 1 microsecond. The command hierarchy facilitates control over this great quantity of information. Those at higher ranks have "to leave certain of these details to subordinates and to deal with higher-level abstractions ..." Conversely, those at lower ranks accept commands defining their contexts. Thompson's characterization of abstraction is "grouping otherwise discriminable aspects as a single object." This is generalization; true abstraction might instead be phrased as "organizing otherwise unrelated aspects into the pattern of a single object or event." Van der Leeuw, S. E. 1982 INFORMATION FLOWS, FLOW STRUCTURES AND THE EXPLANATION OF CHANGE IN HUMAN INSTITUTIONS. In Van der Leeuw. Rev AA 86:444 / Haas. A "field" theory of information processing in social structure. 1982 (Ed.) _ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF COMPLEXI- TY_. Universiteit van Amsterdam. Wirsing, Rolf, Dr. 1973 POLITICAL POWER AND INFORMATION: A Cross-Cultural Study. _American Anthropologist_ 75:153-170. Power is related to number of structural levels of infor- mation processing. Power: warfare, adjudication, appoint- ment, wealth, labor. Number of political power positions increases, control depends on ability to control informa- tion; economic and political development tend to parallel each other. TEHC 38 :WARBIBL War Andrzejewski, Stanislaw 1954 _MILITARY ORGANIZATION AND SOCIETY_. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Davie, Maurice R. [1893- ] 1929 _THE EVOLUTION OF WAR: A Study of its Role in Early Societies_. (Yale Publications in Economics, Social Science and Government, 1.) New Haven, CT: Yale Universi- ty Press. WPSo 1969 Rpt. Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press. Ferguson, R. Brian, ed. 1992 _TRIBAL WARFARE_. Cited in _Scientific American_ 266(1):- 108. Leavitt, Gregory C. 1977 THE FREQUENCY OF WARFARE: AN EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE. _Sociological Inquiry_ 47(1):49-58. Otterbein, Keith F. / SUNY Buffalo / Anthropology 1968 INTERNAL WAR: A Cross-Cultural Study. _American Anthro- pologist 70:277-289. 1970 _THE EVOLUTION OF WAR: A Cross-Cultural Study_. New Haven: HRAF Press. Carneiro, Robert L., foreword. 1985 2d ed Cultural complexity is associated with more frequent external war, warfare for economic or political gain, less feuding, and a more stable peace following the cessation of fighting. TEHC 42 Compared: Territorial loss - Unstable boundaries - Stable - Expansion Band - Tribe - Chiefdom - State in 50 soci- eties, no significant correlation. Tefft, Stanton K. & Reinhart, Douglas 1974 WARFARE REGULATION: A Cross-cultural Test of Hypotheses among Tribal Peoples. _Behavior Science Research 9:151- 172. Turney-High, Harry Hulbert [b. 1899] 1942 _THE PRACTICE OF PRIMITIVE WAR_. University of Montana. Publications in the Social Sciences 2. 1949 _PRIMITIVE WAR: Its Practices and Concepts_. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. 1972 2d ed. Wright, Quincy [1890-1970] 1942 _A STUDY OF WAR_. 2 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1965 2d ed. 1 vol, with a Commentary on War since 1942. 1968 THE STUDY OF WAR. In _International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences_, 16:453-468. WPSo :SUPRBIBL The Male Supremacist Complex (Note: AA =_American Anthropologist_) Divale, William Tulio [1942- ] 1970 AN EXPLANATION FOR PRIMITIVE WARFARE: Population Control and the Significance of Primitive Sex Ratios. _New Schol- ar_ 2:172-193. 1971 A THEORY OF POPULATION CONTROL IN PRIMITIVE CULTURE (Test- ed Cross-culturally on 462 Societies). M.A. thesis. California State College at Los Angeles. DivaIe, Wil1iam T., and Marvin Harris 1976 POPULATION, WARFARE AND THE MALE SUPREMACIST COMPLEX. 78:521-538. 112 societies; boys to 14 yrs outnumber girls 127:100 before colonial power; after, 104:100. Female infanticide. KndH 296 1978 THE MALE SUPREMACIST COMPLEX: Discovery of a Cultural Invention. AA 80:668-671. 1978 Reply to Lancaster and Lancaster. AA 80:117-118. Divale, William T., Harris, Marvin & Williams, Donald T. 1978 On the Misuse of Statistics: A Reply to Hirschfeld et al. AA 80:379-386. Fjellman, Stephen M. 1979 HEY, YOU CAN'T DO THAT. _Behavior Science Research_ 14:199-200. Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. / Columbia University 1979 REPLY. AA 81:349-350. Hirschfeld, Lawrence A., James Howe, and Bruce Levin 1978 WARFARE, INFANTICIDE, AND STATISTICAL INFERENCE. AA 80:110-115. Howe, James / Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1978 NINETY-TWO MYTHICAL POPULATIONS. AA 80:671-673. Kang, Gay, Susan Horan, and Janet Reis 1979 COMMENTS. _Behavior Science Research_ 14:201-209. Lancaster, Chet & Lancaster, Jane Beckman 1978 ON THE MALE SUPREMACIST COMPLEX. AA 80:115-117. Norton, Helen H. / University of Washington 1978 THE MALE SUPREMACIST COMPLEX: DISCOVERY OR INVENTION? AA 80:665-667. :PRDGMBIBL Paradigms Benedict, Ruth (Fulton) [1887-1948 1934 _PATTERNS OF CULTURE_. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Hollinger, David A. 1973 T. S. KUHN'S THEORY OF SCIENCE and its Implications for History. _American Historical Review_ 78:370-393. Holton, Gerald 1973 THE THEMATIC COMPONENT IN SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT: Origins of Relativity Theory and other Essays. _Graduate Journal_ [University of Texas @ Austin] 9 (Supplement). 1973 _THEMATIC ORIGINS OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT_. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1975 ON THE ROLE OF THEMATA IN SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT. _Science_ 188:328-334. Kuhn, Thomas S. 1962 _THE STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS_. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Any edition of this book will serve to give the reader a feel for the concept of a scientific "paradigm". 1970 Logic of discovery or psychology of research. In Lakatos & Musgrave. Merton, Robert K. 1975 THEMATIC ANALYSIS IN SCIENCE: NOTES ON HOLTON'S CONCEPT. _Science_ 188:335-338. :Po12BIBL Political Growth from Rank 1 to Rank 2 Abrahamson, Mark 1969 CORRELATES OF POLITICAL COMPLEXITY. _American Sociologi- cal Review_ 34:690-701. The more complex a society, the less important are kin ties and kinship organization. TEHC 38 Carneiro, Robert Leonard 1970 A THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE STATE. _Science_ 169:733- 738. 1972 FROM AUTONOMOUS VILLAGES TO THE STATE: A Numerical Esti- mation. In PGAI = Spooner, 64-77. 1988 THE CIRCUMSCRIPTION THEORY: Challenge and Response. _American Behavioral Scientist_ 31:497-511. Cohen, Ronald 1984 WARFARE AND STATE FORMATION: Wars Make States and States Make Wars. In Ferguson, 329-355. Conflict vs consensus view of the state. KndH 382 Cohen, Ronald, & Elman R. Service, eds. 1978 _ORIGINS OF THE STATE: The Anthropology of Political Evolution_. Philadelphia, PA: Institute for the Study of Human Sciences. Crumley, Carole L. / University of Missouri, Columbia 1976 TOWARD A LOCATIONAL DEFINITION OF STATE SYSTEMS OF SETTLE- MENT. _American Anthropologist_ 78:59-73. "Urbanism is one of several ways to consolidate, concen- trate, and organize the coercive power necessary for state formation. Central Place Theory (CPT) is a model of urban settlement frequently chosen to approach the broader problem of state formation, but its universal applicabili- ty is in doubt. Spatial and functional definitions of urbanism, functional center, and functional lattice are derived using other theories. A typology of state-level settlements. Advantages of a locational approach to the investigation of settlement systems." Dalton, George / Boston University 1981 ANTHROPOLOGICAL MODELS IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE. In PPDC, 17-48. Flannery, Kent V. ? The origins of the village as a settlement type in Meso- america and the Near East: A comparative study. In ???, 23-53. 1972 THE CULTURAL EVOLUTION OF CIVILIZATIONS. _Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics_ 3:399-426. Over 20 traits for the state (403-404). Fried, Morton Herbert [1923-1986] 1967 _THE EVOLUTION OF POLITICAL SOCIETY: An Essay in Polical Anthropology_. New York: Random House. Haas, Jonathan 1982 _THE EVOLUTION OF THE PREHISTORIC STATE_. = EPSt New York: Columbia University Press. Integration requires control, which can become coercive. Henke, Robert 1973 A CROSS-CULTURAL TREATMENT OF CHANGES IN PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT SIZE. In MCCA, 355-360. MRPL Ingold, Tim 1987 _EVOLUTION AND SOCIAL LIFE_ (Themes in the Social Scienc- es). Cambridge University Press. Rev Man 23:413-414 / Ellen, Roy / University of Kent at Canterbury. 1990 COMMENT on "Foragers, Genuine or Spurious" by Solway & Lee. _Current Anthropology_ 31:130-131. Forager sociality is of such a different order that the term "society" is inappropriate. (130-131 > ASP? 41, 43, 45n19) Isaac, Barry L. University of Cincinnati / Department of Anthropology 1975 RESOURCE SCARCITY, COMPETITION, AND COOPERATION in Cultur- al Evolution. In Brady & Isaac, 125-143. Chiefdom level would be possible without agriculture, where natural foods are plentiful. (p. 139) Conquest warfare is "merely the final step in the forma- tion of large states." (p. 138) A chiefdom does not have a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within the polity, but a state does. (p. 140) Johnson, Gregory A. CUNY / Hunter College / Department of Anthropology 1973 LOCAL EXCHANGE AND EARLY STATE DEVELOPMENT in Southwestern Iran. University of Michigan / Museum of Anthropology, _Anthropological Papers_ 51. Sites of four distinct sizes; material evidence of admin- istrative responsibility (record-keeping seals and stamps) in the larger sizes. (pp. 101-113) Sites of 3 sizes in Early Uruk Period. (pp. 139-141) 1982 MONITORING COMPLEX SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND BOUNDARY PHENOM- ENA WITH SETTLEMENT SIZE DATA. In Van der Leeuw. Jones, Grant D., and Robert R. Kautz, eds. / Hamilton College 1981 _THE TRANSITION TO STATEHOOD IN THE NEW WORLD_. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University. Rev AA 85:726-727 / Wright, Henry T., III. Maisels, Charles Keith 1987 MODELS OF SOCIAL EVOLUTION: Trajectories from the Neoli- thic to the State. _Man_ n.s. 22:331-359. = MSTS From kinship-ordered egalitarian society, different paths led to different state-ordered stratified societies. The 'Asiatic'/Village-State mode of production emerged from an identifiable centre on the basis of an extensive, uniform ecology; descent groups remained the corporate societal elements. The organic urbanism of City-State Mesopotamia emerged from topographical diversity in an open-ended positive feedback system with many diverse inputs. In the process new minimal lineage forms developed embedded in, and subsumed by, the household as a larger co-residential grouping, the latter displacing the kinship idiom as the basic mode of social organisation in the emerging urban society. City-State stratification/urbanism was rooted in economic differentiation, as opposed to ideological and political differentiation in the Village-State. Masumura, Wilfred T. 1977 LAW AND VIOLENCE: A Cross-cultural Study. _Journal of Anthropological Research_ 33:388-399. 47 societies. Authority to decide disputes and punish murder lower the level of violence. Superordinate justice and punishment reduce violence. Mellaart, James 1961 EXCAVATIONS AT HACILAR: 4th Report. _Anatolian Studies_ 11:39-75. 1963 EXCAVATIONS AT CATAL-HUYUK 1962: Second Preliminary Re- port. _Anatolian Studies_ 13:43-103. BBPR 1967 _CAIAL HöYöK: A Neolitbic Town in Anatolia_. London: Thames & Hudson & New York: McGraw-Hill. ALPz 1975 _THE EARLIEST CIVILIZATIONS IN THE NEAR EAST_. London: Thames and Hudson. Redfield, Robert [1897- ] 1941 _THE FOLK CULTURE OF YUCATAN_. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. From the tribal village, through the peasant village, and the town, to the city, the later is less isolated, more heterogeneous, with more complex division of labor, a more complete money economy, professional specialists who are more secular and less sacred; weaker kinship and godparen- tal institutions and stronger impersonal institutions of control, and is less religious. In the more urban society the individual has greater freedom of choice and action; sickness is less often regarded as a result of moral breach but--perhaps--more often regarded as a result of black magic. 1953 _THE PRIMITIVE WORLD AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS_. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press and London: Geoffrey Cumber- lege, Oxford University Press. Renfrew, Colin [1937- ] 1972 _THE EMERGENCE OF CIVILIZATION: The Cyclades and the Aegean in the Third Millenium B.C._ London: Methuen. l973 _BEFORE CIVILIZATION: The Radiocarbon Revolution and Prehistoric Europe_. New York & Harmondsworth: Knopf & Penguin. 1976 2nd ed. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. Chiefdom began in Western Europe as early as in Eastern Europe. 1973 (Ed.) _THE EXPLANATION OF CULTURE CHANGE: Models in Pre- history_. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. & Pitts- burgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. 1973 MONUMENTS, MOBILIZATION AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IN NEOLI- THIC WESSEX. In Renfrew, 539-558. Robbins, Michael C. 1966 HOUSE TYPES AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS. _Minnesota Archaeol- ogist_ 28:2-26. Roscoe, Paul B. 1988 FROM BIG-MEN TO THE STATE: A processual approach to cir- cumscription theory. _American Behavioral Scientist_ 31:472-483. RG91 Roscoe, Paul B. and Robert B. Graber, eds. 1988 CIRCUMSCRIPTION AND THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY. _American Behavioral Scientist_ 31(4). Ross, Marc Howard 1983 POLITICAL DECISION MAKING AND CONFLICT: Additional Cross- cultural Codes and Scales. Ethnology 22:169-192. 42 variables, 90 societies; factor analysis of 25 vari- ables yields 5 scales. Factors: 1. Concentration of political power; 2. Central- ization and specialization; 3. Internal conflict; 4. External war and ethnocentrism; 5. Cross-cutting ties. 1 and 2 correlate with cultural evolution (Murdock and Provost, Murdock and Murrow). 3 and 4 do not correlate. 5 correlates moderately with cultural evolution. CE* Sahlins, Marshall David [b. 1930] 1968 _TRIBESMEN_. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Sansom, Sir George B. 1958 _A HISTORY OF JAPAN TO 1334_. Stanford University Press. "... the first major steps toward state formation ... were taken by chiefdoms that had been in contact with China. From there, they had obtained iron weapons ... [Perhaps] the first chiefdoms ... were formed by peoples armed with bronze weapons (also obtained from China) ..." [14-19; RLC 1981:57] Service, Elman R[ogers] [b. 1915] / University of Michigan 1962 _PRIMITIVE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: An Evolutionary Perspec- tive_. New York: Random House. 1971 2d ed. 1966 _THE HUNTERS_. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Steward, Julian Haynes [1902-1972] 1948 THE CIRCUM-CARIBBEAN TRIBES: An Introduction. In Stew- ard, 4:1-42. Upham, Steadman, ed. 1990 _THE EVOLUTION OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS: Sociopolitics in Small-scale Sedentary Societies_. Cambridge University Press. ASP? Weber, Max 1905 (Trans 1930) _THE PROTESTANT ETHIC AND THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM_. Parsons, Talcott, trans. London & New York: Allen and Unwin & Charles Scribner's Sons. White, Leslie Alvin [1900-1975] 1947 EVOLUTIONARY STAGES, PROGRESS, AND THE EVALUATION OF CULTURES. _Southwestern Journal of Anthropology_ 3:165- 192. RLC 1973, 1976 1949 _THE SCIENCE OF CULTURE: A Study of Man and Civilization_. New York: Grove Press; also Farrar Straus and [Cudahy] Company. 1959 _THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURE: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome_. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Rev AA 62:144-148 / Steward, Julian H. Wright, Henry T. Johnson, Gregory A. l975 POPULATION, EXCHANGE, AND EARLY STATE FORMATION IN SOUTH- WESTERN IRAN. _American Anthropologist_ 77:267-289. CrcT :CHIEFBIBL Chiefdoms Carneiro, Robert Leonard 1981 THE CHIEFDOM: Precursor of the State. In Jones and Kautz, eds., 37-79 [ Po12BIBL* ] History of the concept; definition: "_A chiefdom is an autonomous political unit comprising a number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief_" (p. 45); types; distribution; antiquity; origin; growth. Malinowski, Bronislaw 1922 _ARGONAUTS OF THE WESTERN PACIFIC_. London: George Rout- ledge and Sons & New York: Dutton. The paramount chief inspires great awe. He can recruit warriors and claim labor. He is master of ceremonies for festivities. Uses the harvest for festivities, expedi- tions and objects of value. He employs the best sorcerers to kill offenders by magic; and "one or two henchmen" to kill the gravest offenders directly. (pp. 63-65) Metraux, Alfred 1942 THE NATIVE TRIBES OF EASTERN BOLIVIA. Smithsonian Insti- tution / Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 134. P. 129: Manasi chief, in the Mojos plain: No one can leave the village without permission, the young stand in the presence of the chief, who receives formal address and has a huge house and large fields worked by others. Roth, Walter E. 1924 AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF THE ARTS, CRAFTS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE GUIANA INDIANS. Smithsonian Institution / Bureau of American Ethnology. 38th Annual Report, 1916-1917 FFDP P. 568: Fr Rochefort wrote of the Island Carib, "in the presence of the island cacique no man speaks if he does not ask or command him to do it." Sahlins, Marshall David [b. 1930] 1958 _SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN POLYNESIA. Seattle: University of Washington Press. "... a milestone in the discussion of ..." chiefdoms. 14 islands. [ Carneiro* 1981:41] A high chief might execute a person who violated his tabus, stole his property, or committed adultery with his wife. "The paramount chief's servant could enter a person's house, seize cloth, kill pigs, take the last breadfruit, and pull up the houseposts for firewood, while the owner, even if he were a subchief, would look on without saying a word. Ellis notes that farmers, on pain of banishment or of being used as sacrificial victims had to supply produce for chiefs if they stopped nearby while traveling." [39-40] The chief uses a substantial part of what he takes for his retinue and to live in a grand style. :KINGBIBL Kingdoms Sanders, William T. 1974 CHIEFDOM TO STATE: Political Evolution at Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala. In Moore, 97-113. "'We will simply define the state here as a political system involving adjudicative powers and explicit manifes- tations of force.'" [98; Carneiro 1981:75, n 44] Speke, John Hanning 1864 _JOURNAL OF THE DISCOVERY OF THE SOURCE OF THE NILE_. New York: Harper and Brothers. 337-338: Saw a Ganda king send 1, 2, or 3 women to death almost every day. UCSn 5. Wittfogel, Karl August 1957 _ORIENTAL DESPOTISM: A Comparative Study of Total Power_. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. RLC STATE, 1973. Despotic regimes first emerged in ancient China, Egypt, Mesopotamia and India out of the desire to build and operate large waterworks. The organizational structure necessary to success in that enterprise nurtured the growth of an oppressive ruling class. :NATNBIBL Nations Colley, Linda 1992 _BRITONS: Forging the Nation 1707-1837_. New Haven: Yale University Press. Rev NYTBR 1011:11 / Ritvo, Harriet Learning to identify with the nation as a whole. Kohn, Hans ? MODERN SOCIO-ECONOMIC DOCTRINES AND REFORM MOVEMENTS: NATIONALISM. In _Encyclopaedia Britannica III_, 27:469. The first full manifestation of modern nationalism oc- curred in 17th-century England, in the Puritan revolution. The ideas of the 18th century found their first political realization in the Declaration of Independence and in the birth of the American nation. 470. 1944 _THE IDEA OF NATIONALISM_. New York: Macmillan. NtNt 1961 Rpt. 1955 _NATIONALISM, ITS MEANING AND HISTORY_. Princeton, NtNt 1962 _THE AGE OF NATIONALISM_. New York. NtNt Tilly, Charles 1975 (Ed.) _THE FORMATION OF NATIONAL STATES IN WESTERN EU- ROPE_. Princeton. NtNt Ward, Barbara 1959 _FIVE IDEAS THAT CHANGE THE WORLD. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc. Nationalism, industrialism, colonialism, communism, inter- nationalism. :ECOLBIBL Ecology Brown, Lester R. et al. 1992 _STATE OF THE WORLD: 1992_. Worldwatch Institute. Clark, C. 1967 _THE ECONOMICS OF IRRIGATION_. London: Pergamon Press. Energy cost will prevent much more irrigation. EAWM* 9 Forrester, Jay 1971 _WORLD DYNAMICS_. Cambridge, MA: Wright-Allen Press. Fuller, R[ichard] Buckminster [1895- ] 1969 _OPERATING MANUAL FOR SPACESHIP EARTH_. Carbondale, IL. Meadows, Donella H., Dennis L. Meadows, Jorgen Randers, and William W. Behrens III 1972 _LIMITS TO GROWTH. A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind_. New York: Universe Books. Odum, Eugene P. 1959 _FUNDAMENTALS OF ECOLOGY_. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company. Liebig's Law of the Minimum: populations should adjust to the carrying capacity of their minimum years. 1971 3rd ed. 1971 _ENVIRONMENT, POWER, AND SOCIETY_. Wiley-Interscience. Pimentel, D., Hurd, L. E., Bellotti, A. C., Forster, M. J., Oka, I. N., Sholes, O. D. & Whitman, R. J. 1973 FOOD PRODUCTION AND THE ENERGY CRISIS. _Science_ 182:443. Energy input to corn production tripled in 25 yrs. Indi- rect energy forms are 62% of energy use for growing corn. Schumacher, E[rnst] F[riedrich] [1911-1977] 1973 _SMALL IS BEAUTIFUL: Economics as if People Mattered_. New York: Harper & Row. :THEOBIBL Theory of Evolution Boyd, Robert & Richerson, Peter J. 1985 _CULTURE AND THE EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS_. University of Chicago Press. Bronowski, Jacob (1908-1974) "stratified stability": Progress occurs because of inher- ent stabilities that reduce backsliding. Language is one; writing built on it. In biology, replicating molecules, cell envelopes, sexual recombination, and brains. CWHC 197 Campbell, Donald T[homas] [1916- ] 1960 BLIND VARIATION AND SELECTIVE RETENTION in creative thought as in other knowledge processes. _Psychological Review_ 67:380-400. CERdr Ch. 20. CmCs 269 Corning, Peter A. [1935- ] 1983 _THE SYNERGISM HYPOTHESIS: A Theory of Progressive Evolu- tion_. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 5: [The hypothesis:] "It it the selective advantages arising from various synergistic effects that constitute the underlying cause of the apparently orthogenetic (or directional) aspect of evolutionary history, that is, the progressive emergence of complex, hierarchically organized systems." 13: "In the Interactional Paradigm, social causation is viewed as multileveled, configural, and interactive. It seeks to integrate deterministic, teleonomic (goal-direct- ed), and stochastic elements and--from a different per- spective--internal (biopsychological) and external (social and ecological) elements into a dynamic, hierarchical framework." Dawkins, Richard / Zoology, Oxford 1986 _THE BLIND WATCHMAKER_. London: Longman. Dobzhansky, Theodosius Grigorievich [1900-1975] 1937 _GENETICS AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES_. New York: Columbia University Press. Fisher, R. A. Statistician, England. DrvF 26 1930 The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Oxford: Cla- rendon Press. USNE Goertzel, Ben 1992 SELF-ORGANIZING EVOLUTION. _Journal of Social and Evolu- tionary Systems_ 15:7-53. Natural selection in the creation of form: Algorithmic information theory and the theory of pattern; evolution in immune systems and ecosystems. Compact instructions give rise to complex, self-organizing structures Fractals and cellular automata. A new mathematical formulation of the theory of evolution by natural selection, taking into account ecological and intra-organismic self-organization. Gray, Charles E[dward] 1966 _A MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY IN WESTERN CIVILIZATION. _American Anthropologist_ 68:1384-1417. Creativity peaks are "the effects of underlying cycles in the political, economic, and social milieu." Simonton 1981:628 1972 PARADOXES IN WESTERN CREATIVITY. _American Anthropolo- gist_ 74:676-688. Statistical data on creativity in the arts and philosophy Kroeber (_Configurations of Culture Growth_) dealt quali- tatively with this topic. Haldane, J. B. S. 1932 _THE CAUSES OF EVOLUTION_. New York: Harper & London: Longmans. Hull, David L. / University of Wisconsin @ Milwaukee 1988 Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science. University of Chicago. xiii + 586 pp. $39.95 Rev JSES 15:123-134 / Grontkowski, Christine, R. / Alfred (NY) University / Philosophy "Just as organisms in general behave in ways to increase their own genetic inclusive fitness, scientists tend to behave in ways calculated to increase their own conceptual inclusive fitness." 319 > JSES 15:124 Reading this sentence, and remembering the selfish gene, it occurred to me that the scientist's papers are the genes in cultural evolution; in general, the culture (observable things and behaviors including speech) are the genome. The organisms are persons! 920729 Huxley, Julian Sorrell, Sir [1887-1975] 1942 _EVOLUTION: The Modern Synthesis_. New York: Harper & Brothers. The subtitle has become a standard term. Progress is "all-round biological efficiency, i.e. as increasing control over and independence of the environ- ment" PvHs 127 Mutations and natural selection explain gradual evolution; known genetic mechanisms can explain macroevolutionary processes and speciation. Huxley, Julian Sorrell, Sir [1887-1975] 1960 AT RANDOM, A TELEVISION PREVIEW. In Tax & Callendar, 3:41-65. Evolution is "a one-way process, irreversible in time, producing apparent novelties and greater variety, and leading to higher degrees of organization." "Higher means more differentiated, more complex, but at the same time more integrated." [44; Carneiro 1972:257] Kauffman, Stuart A. 1984 "Complex systems exhibit far more spontaneous order than we have supposed, an order that evolutionary theory has ignored. But that realization only begins to state our problem. ... Now the task becomes much more trying, for we must not only envision the self-ordering principles of complex systems but also try to understand how such self- ordering interacts with, enables, guides, and constrains natural selection. ... Biologists are fully aware of natural selection, but have never asked how selection interacts with the collective self-ordered properties of complex systems. We are entering virgin territory." CWHC 194 1992 Santa Fe Institute / Biochemist "As one ascends in levels of complexity from quarks to human societies, one finds properties that cannot be predicted from the properties of the parts. ... no finite way of parsing the world into objects and laws by which they interact." _Scientific American_ 267(6):22 Kroeber, Alfred 1944 _CONFIGURATIONS OF CULTURE GROWTH_. Berkeley: University of California Press. Mayr, Ernst 1942 _SYSTEMATICS AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES_. 1982 Repr New York: Columbia University Press. Variation exists; it is adaptive; variation within species is similar to variation among species. Species arise from intra-specific variation. Taxonomy cannot be exact because evolution requires incip- ient species and genera. (p. 114) Species are defined by the capacity for interbreeding. (p. 120) 1982 _THE GROWTH OF BIOLOGICAL THOUGHT: Diversity, Evolution, Inheritance_. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Universitv Press. 1988 _TOWARD A NEW PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY_. Harvard UP. Mendel, Gregor Johann 1865 VERSUCHE UEBER PFLANZENHYBRIDEN. Laws of inheritance. Published in an obscure local jour- nal, but I have read that Mendel sent a copy to Darwin. The paper was rediscovered by 3 workers independently in 1900. Nicolis, G. [1939- ] & Prigogine, I[lya] 1977 _SELF-ORGANIZATION IN NONEQUILIBRIUM SYSTEMS_. New York: John Wiley & Sons. "Wherever we look, we discover evolutionary processes leading to diversification and increasing complexity." (p. 1) "Remarkably, the idea of evolution that appeared in phys- ics through the second law [of thermodynamics] was formu- lated almost simultaneously in the 19th century in biology and sociology." [Darwin, Spencer] (p. 2) "Only if appropriate [positive] feedback conditions are satisfied can the thermodynamic branch become unstable at a sufficient distance from equilibrium." (p. 4) "Life considered as a result of improbable initial condi- tions is therefore compatible with the laws of physics (initial conditions can be arbitrarily chosen) but does not follow from the laws of physics (which do not pre- scribe the initial conditions)." (p. 14) Prigogine, I[lya] 1955 _INTRODUCTION TO THE THERMODYNAMICS OF IRREVERSIBLE PRO- CESSES_. Charles C. Thomas, Publishers. 1967 3d ed New York: John Wiley & Sons. Pulliam, H. Ronald & Dunford, Christopher 1980 _PROGRAMMED TO LEARN: An Essay on the Evolution of Cul- ture_. New York: Columbia University Press. Rev AA 84:105-129 / Boehm, Christopher Rensch, Bernhard / University of Munster / Zoology 1960 _EVOLUTION ABOVE THE SPECIES LEVEL_. New York: Columbia University Press. Rev AA 63:880-881 / Hutchinson, G. E. Simonton, Dean Keith / University of California, Davis 1975 SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT OF INDIVIDUAL CREATIVITY: A Trans- historical Time Series Analysis. _J Personality and Social Psychology_ 32:1119-1133. Dynamic structural equation for creativity in Graeco-Roman and Western civilization. The overall trend is exponen- tial. Deviations are explained by extrinsic, environmen- tal predictors such as political fragmentation, political instability, imperial instability, and war or by intrinsic influence from previous generations. The clustering of creators into configurations is due to both. Military revolts, coups-d'etat, dynastic conflicts, political assassinations, etc., reduce creativity in the next gener- ation. Revolts and rebellions against large empire states, increase creativity in the next generation. Simpson, George Gaylord [b. 1902] 1944 _TEMPO AND MODE IN EVOLUTION_. New York: Columbia Univer- sity Press. Macroevolution usually occurs in small populations. Taagepera, Rein & Colby, Benjamin N. 1979 GROWTH OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION: Epicyclical or Exponen- tial? _American Anthropologist_ 81:907-912. Exponential growth may be partially due to general popula- tion growth and to the tendency to discount earlier his- torical events. Gray is arbitrary and subjective, misses extraneous fac- tors, and cannot acceptably measure one genius relative to another. Vanderburg, William H. [Willem H.] 1985 _THE GROWTH OF MINDS AND CULTURES: A Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Experience_. Ellul, Jacques, foreword. Toronto, Ontario & Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press. Rev Man 21:786-787 / Jahoda, Marie
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